Permute random rope define8/21/2023 Design, visual and speech stimuli, timing, interest periods and task We also present examples of five alternative approaches (growth curve analysis, cluster-based permutation analysis, bootstrapped differences of timeseries, generalised additive modelling and divergence point analysis) and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each method. We discuss the nature of the time-course data in VWP studies and the hurdles of testing finer-grained differences in the emergence of an effect over time using t-tests/ANOVA or LMEs. In section The temporal emergence of an effect, we present examples of time-course analyses. Although some of these analyses (e.g., ANOVAs or t-tests) are no longer frequently used to analyse VWP data, we included them as they have been used in published articles, can serve as a first step into the analysis of VWP data for beginners, and often appear as one step in some of the time-course analyses we show in this manuscript (see below). In section Analysis of fixation averages for individual interest periods, we present examples of applying statistical tests such as t-tests, analyses of variance (ANOVA), or linear mixed-effects models (LME) for analysing eye-movement data averages. ( 2018b) discussed below, section Descriptions of our data sets). We then describe two data sets (Experiment 1a in Knoeferle and Crocker ( 2006) and data from Ito et al. To this end, we describe typical experimental designs Footnote 3 and variables that should be considered when making analytic decisions (section Design, visual and speech stimuli, timing, interest periods and task our aim here is not to provide an exhaustive overview of VWP studies for a more comprehensive overview, see Huettig et al., 2011 and for a shorter overview, see Supplementary file S1 from ). We compare different analysis methods using data sets from our previous studies and offer recommendations for how to select an analysis method. The goal of our paper is to provide linguists and psycholinguists (who may not have used the VWP) tutorials on several analysis methods. Considering these options, researchers must select an analysis that is suitable for their research question and the type of data. Several different analysis methods have been proposed for analysing eye-movement data. These data characteristics should be taken into consideration when choosing inferential analyses Footnote 2. Third, and related to the second point, the analysis of fixations across time brings with it issues regarding temporal dependence of consecutive data points. Further, consecutive eye movements are not independent, and where one looks at the onset of woman may affect (above and beyond the effects of any manipulations) the location of the next fixation (Barr et al., 2011). One of these assumptions is independence of the observations: If a listener makes a fixation on a woman, they necessarily cannot at the same time look at a nearby man, a characteristic that violates the assumption of independence when comparing looks to these two characters. Second, they often do not meet assumptions for parametric tests Footnote 1. First, fixation data are binary (a listener looks at an object or not), and as a result they do not meet the assumption of Gaussian-distributed data. The analysis of fixation data is not without challenges. Due to its high temporal resolution, the eye-tracking VWP data can provide insight into listeners’ cognitive operations while individual spoken words or entire sentences are unfolding moment-by-moment. For example, if listeners hear the woman, and they next look more at a nearby woman than man, we can infer from this difference in fixations that they have understood woman and established reference to her. So-called linking hypotheses (Just & Carpenter, 1980 Magnuson, 2019 Pyykkönen-Klauck & Crocker, 2016 Tanenhaus et al., 2000) permit researchers to interpret these sorts of eye movements as indicative of the cognitive operations implicated in language processing. We distinguish a range of eye-movement types (see Rayner, 1998, 2009 for comprehensive reviews) in the VWP (see Pyykkönen-Klauck & Crocker, 2016), among them are fixations (the eye rests), saccades (the eye jumps from an old to a new location) and saccade latencies (Altmann & Kamide, 2004, Appendix on comparative analyses). This paradigm involves tracking participants’ eye movements with an eye-tracker as they listen to individual sounds, words or sentences and inspect either things in the real world or visual information on a computer display (Huettig et al., 2011 Knoeferle & Guerra, 2016 Salverda & Tanenhaus, 2017). The visual-world paradigm (VWP) has been widely used to investigate language processing.
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